Research on Self-Direction in Learning in the United States

I. a brief chronology

• 1961. Cyril Houle, The inquiring Mind
  • Adult learners are goal oriented, activity oriented or learning oriented
• 1965. Johnstone and Rivera, Volunteers for Learning
  • Extensive study of participation in adult learning in the US revealed that 8% of adults in the US were involved in at least one major self-education project in year sampled (1961-62). " Self-instruction is probably the most overlooked ... activity in ... adult education "
• 1966 ; Jerome Bruner, Toward a theory of instruction
  • Describes it as " the provisional state that has as its object to make the learner or problem-solver self-sufficient "
• 1969. Carl Rogers, Freedom to learn
  • Teacher as facilitator, encouragement of self-direction in learning
• 1970. Malcom Knowles, Modern practice of adult education
  • Presented assumptions of andragogy : " #1, adults are self-directed in other areas of their lives, and therefore prefer SDL
• 1975. Malcom Knowles, Self-Directed Learning
  • " Why and How to " of SDL for teachers and learners
• 1971, 1979. Allen Tough, The Adult Learning Projects
  • Extensive research on " adult self-learners ", how they learn, how many learning projects they complete on their own per year, resources used ...
  • Median of 8 learning projects per year, 70% self-planned
  • Many other studies used his interview schedule
• 1976. Roger Hiemstra, Life Long Learning
  • Discussion of andragogy as an evolving theory area
• 1979. Huey Long, Continuing Education of Adults in Colonial America
  • Descriptive research emphasizing self-learning during this period
• 1977. Lucy Guglielmino, SDLRS & LPA
  • 3-round Delphi study to arrive at characteristic of self-sirected learner, resulting in tentative definition
  • Development of Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS) as well as Learning Preference Assessment (self-scoring form with Paul Guglielmino)
  • Validation studies, correlational studies, meta-analysis, cross-cultural comparisons
• 1980. Maurice Gibbons et al.
  • Quantitative study of experts who were self-taught
• 1989. Sandra McCune, A Meta-analytic study of Self-Drection in Adult Learning, (1977-1987)
  • Identified most frequently used research tools (Guglielmino's SDLRS and Tough's interview schedule)
  • Verified a variety of variables associated with self-direction in learning across studies using different methodologies
• 1983 - present. International Symposium on Self-Directed Learning (annual) coordinated by Huey Long
  • Promotes research and its dissemination, through publication of selected papers each year
• 1984. Spear & Mecker
  • Based on qualitative research, presented the concept of the organizing circumstance (environmental influence of SDL)
• 1984. Lorys Oddl
  • Development of an instrument to measure self-directed continuing learning of professional ( Oddl Continuing learning inventory)
• 1985. . Stephen Brookfield, Self-Directed Learning : from theory to practice (and many other publications)
  • Included a critical review of SDL research
  • Emphasized interdependence of self-directed learners
• 1989. Huey Long, SDL as interaction between psychological and pedagogical control
• 1991. Huey Long, Interaction model for analysis of interacting variables in SDL
• Compilations of SDL Research
  • 1991. Long & Confessore, Abstracts of Literature in SDL 1966-1982
  • 1992. Confessore & Long, Abstracts of Literature in SDL 1983-1991
  • 1992. Long & Redding, SDL Dissertation Abstracts
  • 1991. Breckett & Hiemstra, Self-Direction in Adult Learning
• 1991. Breckett & Hiemstra, Personal Responsibility orientation model
  • Individuals taking responsibility for their own learning is central
  • Self-Direction can be seen as both an instructional method (self-directed learning) and a personality characteristic (learner self-direction)
  • The Social context in which learning takes place is important
• 1991. Gerald Grow
  • Developed a model of four stages of readiness for self-direction learning
• 1996. Jane Pilling-Cormick
  • Developed Self-Directed Learning Perception
• 1996. Gary & Sharon Professore
  • Developed Learner Autonomy Profile

II. Classification Shemes

• 1985. Ralph Breckett, Three distinct streams of Inquiry
  • Descriptive research
    (based on Tough's interview schedule)
  • Quantitative research
    (focused on the relationship between self-directness and a variety of psychosocial varaiables, primarly through use of SDLRS)
  • Qualitative studies
    (Bookfield, Gibbons, Mexker & Spear, Leean & Sisco)
• 1988. Caffarella & O'Donnell , Five categories
  • Nature of the philosophical position
    (conceptual perspective of the process)
  • Verification studies
    (descriptive investigations of learning process)
  • Nature of the method of SDL
  • Nature of the individual learner
  • Policy questions
• 1999. Merriam & Caffarella, Learning in Adulthood, look at SDL research in 3 broad categories
  • Related to goals of SDL
  • Examining self as a process or form of study
  • Considering self as a personal attribute of the learner